National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No. 10 of 2004)

The major threats facing the 5 species are overutilization and habitat loss, although the extent of these pressures is considered to be reversible and limited, respectively.

Tappers from the Eastern Cape believe that the overharvesting of aloe leaves by untrained harvesters, who leave only one to three leaves remaining on a plant, is a major threat to the species. This is a growing risk in some areas of the province as socioeconomic challenges such as poverty and unemployment are encouraging locals to attempt tapping, as they perceive it as a means of safeguarding their livelihood security (e.g. Chen et al., 2012). Many of these new tappers are not trained and tend to neglect issues of sustainability. Whilst Newton and Vaughan (1996) noted low mortality rates associated with heavy leaf harvesting, officials from the Department of Economic Development, Environmental Affairs and Tourism in Eastern Cape (DEDEAT) have observed plants dying due to overharvesting (e.g. Booysen Park) and disease. Localised damage to harvested plants and low flowering occurrences in over -harvested areas in the Eastern Cape were also observed during the 2014 resource assessment (DEA, 2014). The long -term impacts of high levels of harvesting on populations remains unknown (Melia et al., 2017).

A higher population density of A. ferox in other areas of the Eastern Cape has been attributed to a historical decline of large herbivores such as elephants, rhinoceroses and kudu. Smith et al. (2008) reported A. ferox to be one of the three aloe species which, once the growing tip is destroyed or severely damaged, tends to be unable to sprout and then does not form plantlets. Livestock farms am increasingly converted to game farms in the Eastern Cape because game farming is viewed as a more lucrative alternative to cattle farming (Smith and Wilson, 2002; Carruthers, 2008). As a result, the return of large herbivores such as kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), is causing a demographic bottleneck for A. ferox, where the 0.25 - 1 m tall height class is absent from grazed populations, and it is suggested that this may lead to local extirpations of A. ferox subpopulations in the next 70 -100 years (Van As et al., 2016), except from areas with steep slopes that limit herbivory (Cowling et al., 2009). In livestock farms on the other hand, a demographic bottleneck is starting to be observed in the 0.25 - 0.5 m height class, but this is suspected to be due to cattle trampling and requires further investigation (Van As et al., 2016). At Rooderdraay farm in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, Breebaartet al., (2002) found that extensive browsing of A. ferox by Boer goats was detrimental to the plants. (Though since A. ferox does not occur in KwaZulu- Natal, it is likely that the study species was in fact A. candelabrum.)

Land use change associated with ploughing for crops has become a trend in the Western Cape. Such land use change, including the clearance of land in order to undertake activities related to the A. ferox industry, may however require authorization when it involves the clearance of an area of 300 m2 or more of vegetation where 75% or more of the vegetative cover constitutes indigenous vegetation within critically endangered or endangered ecosystems listed in terms of section 52 of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act No. 10 of 2004) (NEMBA). In addition, the establishment of game farms is also considered a problem in this province as wild animals often eat through the entire leaves of the plants, severely impacting plant growth. Farmed ostriches will eat the highly nutritious seed when there is a drought or grazing shortage, which can negatively affect recruitment.

Recruitment is also affected in areas where aloe is harvested on steeper land, as trampling reportedly removes valuable ground cover that provides protection for young plants through moisture retention and the provision of shade. Loss of ground cover results in bare and hard surfaces, which limits new plant growth and exacerbates erosion by rainfall. Seedlings and younger plants (-10 years old) are furthermore vulnerable to fires (Holland and Fuggle, 1982), as are older plants without a protective skirt of old Harvested plants may therefore leaves. be easily killed by a blaze (Bond, 1983), though high intensity fires can also kill plants with a protective skirt of old leaves. Shackleton and Gambiza (2007) recorded a 32% mortality following an intense fire, on a site with 50 individuals with the protective skirt of leaves intact. The frequencies and intensities of veld fires are increasing due to changing climatic patterns and this could pose a serious threat to A. ferox populations occurring in tire prone areas.

Aloe ferox is fairly resistant to diseases (Van Jaarsveld, 1996) and insect pests (Newton and Vaughan, 1996; Sachedina and Bodeker, 1999). Climate change has been suggested as a potential threat to the species, with one stakeholder suggesting that a severe frost that killed many aloe plants in higher lying areas around Uniondale and Albertinia is evidence of the impact of changing climatic conditions. Landowners in some parts of the Western Cape are observing fewer flowers and seeds being produced (speculated to be due to a drying climate), and consequently less seedlings and Juvenile plants. Reduction in recruitment has also been observed in association with veld degradation.